A Case Study on the Development of Digital Competences of Teachers at the University of Ljubljana

The renewed 2017 EU Higher Education Agenda expresses the intention to "develop and implement a digital readiness model" to assist higher education institutions, their staff, and students in implementing digital learning strategies and maximising the potential of cutting‐edge technologies such as learning analytics. The anticipated digital transformation will only be successful if higher education institutions and teachers strengthen their digital competences and skills and "become" digitally competent. Many of the incentives for these processes were prompted by the unexpected Covid‐19 crisis, which highlighted the importance of higher education teachers' digital skills in the need to digitise the higher education environment. The Covid‐19 crisis experience and the accelerating development of digitalisation are changing both the conditions for education and education itself, which is why higher education teachers face the challenging task of lifelong development of digital competences. To complete this task, they must learn about information and communication technology (ICT)/digital technologies and how they can be integrated into the pedagogical process. The challenge for higher education teachers is to develop ICT‐based teaching. This is not about how higher education teachers (and students) master ICT, but about how to make ICT one of the tools for carrying out pedagogical activities in general. The article addresses the development of digital competences among higher education teachers as a critical issue in the renovation of higher education didactics. To that end, various digital competence models and concepts are presented. Among other things, the European Digital Competence Framework for Teachers is highlighted. The case study of activities aimed at developing digital competences of higher education teachers at the University of Ljubljana (Slovenia), and thus higher education teachers working in the field of education for public administration. Based on the analysis of activities, we discover an increased interest in the development of digital competences, which is reflected in various forms of institutional (university) support for educators (e.g. training), as well as an increased interest in the development of digital competences among higher education teachers. [ FROM AUTHOR] Copyright of NISPAcee Journal of Public Administration & Policy is the property of Sciendo and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full . (Copyright applies to all s.)

An Online Collaborative Biology Simulation Used by Ukrainian Students During the 2022 Russian Invasion

Although the Covid-19 pandemic disrupted learning for students worldwide, the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine has more severely impacted education for Ukrainian students. This study was conducted in the context of an educational technology master's thesis (Halchevska, 2022) at the University of Tartu, Estonia. A master's student with Ukrainian background contacted a biology teacher in Ukraine and offered to help teach an online collaborative lesson about genetics and the laws of inheritance. The lesson involved using an innovative computer simulation called the Collaborative Rabbit Genetics Lab. The learning materials were translated into Ukrainian. A quasi-experimental research design compared whether prior experience working with a collaborative seesaw simulation would influence outcomes later with the biology-related collaborative simulation. Data from two classes of 9th-grade students were collected using questionnaire items related to the perception of interdependence, an open-ended question about collaboration, and a focus group interview. The results indicate that prior practice with a collaborative simulation somewhat enhanced perceived collaboration the next time students worked with a similar type of interdependent task but did not affect task performance. The findings suggest that more guidance is needed to support learners in online collaboration when they solve interdependent tasks. Copyright © 2023 by SCITEPRESS – Science and Technology Publications, Lda. Under CC license (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)

Covid-19 and University Distance Learning in Spain. The Practical Case of Journalism and Communication Degrees

The coronavirus crisis modified work routines in all professional fields, including university education with the temporary closure of academic buildings. Spanish universities continued to function despite the restriction of movement (State of Alarm Decree of 14 March 2020) as the teaching staff modified their routines by adjusting their theoretical and practical teaching procedures to the requirements of non-classroom teaching. This article is an approach to the perceptions and experience of university lecturers during the pandemic and the post-pandemic stage. Methodologically, it compares the case study previously carried out in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Communication of Pontevedra (Gomez Lopez and Alende Castro, 2022) with the findings of the present publication provided by lecturers from the universities of Navarra, Pontificia de Salamanca, Complutense de Madrid, Salamanca, Pompeu Fabra, La Laguna, Santiago de Compostela and A Coruna. The study involves a mixed methodology, with data collected from a standard questionnaire and an interview. The results show that the efforts made by Spanish teachers and higher education centres made up for the limitations of the physical classroom during the pandemic but transferred to the virtual classroom the resources of the face-to-face methodology. However, no significant progress was made in new teaching methodologies that would allow progress to be made towards more flexible educational models.

The influence of digital competence of academicians on students' engagement at university level: moderating effect of the pandemic outbreak

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate how the digital competence of academicians influences students' engagement in learning activities in the face of the pandemic outbreak. In addition to this, the paper investigates how digital competence influences each dimension of student engagement (cognitive, affective and behavioural). Design/methodology/approach: A cross-sectional, quantitative and explanatory research design was used to conduct the study. Data were gathered with an adopted questionnaire administered to a randomly selected sample of 500 university faculty members who were not digitally literate prior to the outbreak of the pandemic. Apart from the goodness of data tests, inferential statistics were applied to test hypotheses. Findings: Results indicate a significant influence of teachers' digital competence on student engagement and the pandemic outbreak positively moderates the relationship. Digital competence equally influences all three dimensions of student engagement. Practical implications: The outbreak of COVID-19 made the adoption of digital life more compulsive and the nations with already available digital infrastructure and digital competence effectively minimized the adverse effect of social distancing as a result of the pandemic outbreak. Findings emphasize practitioners to focus on the digital capacity building of academicians and the provision of digital infrastructure to facilitate student engagement. Social implications: Society is transforming into a hi-tech lifestyle and technological advancement is penetrating almost every sphere of life at an unprecedented pace. From the digitalization of day-to-day affairs to e-governance, the adoption of technology is becoming a new normal. The outbreak of the pandemic overtook academic institutions equally. So, the social distancing compelled academicians and other stakeholders of universities to switchover from in-campus classes to online classes. The findings enrich the existing body of literature by explaining how digital competence has a determining role in ensuring student engagement amid the COVID-19 outbreak. Originality/value: This research is a seminal work, as it tests the influence of digital competence on student engagement with the moderating role of the pandemic outbreak. To the best of the author's knowledge, existing literature does not present this kind of research. © 2023, Emerald Publishing Limited.

Learning derived from the implementation of a pedagogical device in remote teaching conditions by Covid-19

The experience of implementing a pedagogical device in a rural educational institution is presented. The objective is to contribute to the study of the incorporation of digital media in schools through the description and analysis of certain pedagogical adaptations that took place in remote teaching conditions due to Covid-19. Under the action-research approach in education, high school students were guided and accompanied in the creation of short videos on environmental promotion and sustainable development. From a qualitative analysis, the following were identified as important adaptations: 1) more flexible times, rhythms, and stages of teaching and learning;2) the agency and mobilization of digital skills by the teacher to strengthen the pedagogical relationship;and 3) the emphasis placed on the communicative aspects of digital media to favor the creation and expression of students. In general, a reflection on the resources, means and strategies that are needed to respond to the heterogeneity of educational scenarios or unprecedented conditions such as those generated by the pandemic is addressed.

Examining dimensions of teachers' digital competence: A systematic review pre- and during COVID-19.

The digitisation of education has heightened the importance of examining which competences are needed among teachers and student teachers. In the past decade, the opportunities and challenges related to using digital technologies in teaching and training have made the concept of 'digital competence' increasingly relevant. This paper examines how researchers have characterised the dimensions of teachers' digital competences both before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. In a literature review, 116 articles were analysed to identify prevalent understandings of teachers' and student teachers' digital competence. The search was conducted in two rounds: the period up to and including 2019 and supplements from 2020 to 2021. The latter search focused on literature addressing school closures because of 'lockdowns'. The findings indicate that research on teachers' digital competence seems unclear regarding who benefits from teachers' digital competence, the teacher's role and the links between competence and school subject domains. Moreover, teachers have a more functional role than a designer role. In addition, studies on digital competence are typically based on self-reported data, and most publications that have examined the concept of digital competence include knowledge, skills or attitudes. The COVID-19 pandemic seems to have increased the focus on the whole group of pupils and on the use of ready-made educational designs. The pandemic may also have increased researchers' reliance on self-reported data.

The mediating role of trait anxiety in the impact of digital competence perception on job insecurity: an application for hotel managers: MRN

PurposeThe main purpose of the study is to determine the mediating role of trait anxiety in the relationship between hotel managers' perceptions of digital competence in the Cappadocia Region and their perceptions of job insecurity.Design/methodology/approachIn this study, which is based on quantitative research, a cross-sectional design was used. The seven-item digital competence scale, four-item job insecurity scale and 20-item trait anxiety scale were used to measure the level of digital competence, job insecurity and trait anxiety of hotel managers. The convenience sampling method was used in the research, and 337 questionnaires were completed by senior and junior managers who agreed to participate in the research. To test the mediating role of trait anxiety, Andrew F. Hayes' views on the contemporary approach were taken as a basis.FindingsThe analysis results showed that digital competence had the opposite effect on job insecurity. Similarly, digital competence had the opposite effect on the level of trait anxiety. The level of trait anxiety affected the perception of job insecurity in a linear direction. As a result of the bootstrapping test, it was found that the indirect effect of trait anxiety on the relationship between digital competence and job insecurity was significant.Research limitations/implicationsThe study was unable to collect data from hotels that were closed during the COVID-19 pandemic due to restrictions. Therefore, one of the limitations of the study was that it did not reach the entire population. Another limitation of the study was that the questionnaires were addressed to hotel managers in the Cappadocia Region.Practical implicationsHotel managers' digital skills are considered to contribute to the tourism industry by organizing and determining business strategies, work processes and employee skills. In addition, when hiring hotel managers, it is essential to ensure that they have certain skills such as compatibility with the digital age, openness to innovation and the ability to adapt the employees working in their team to the age, which helps to improve the competitiveness of the hotel industry with the world and ensure the continuity of this situation.Originality/valueThe research addressed the variables of digital competence, job insecurity and trait anxiety and collected data from hotel managers in the Cappadocia Region using a survey technique. There were few studies that addressed these variables, and the mediating effect of trait anxiety was revealed based on the contemporary approach.

Impact of employee digital competence on the relationship between digital autonomy and innovative work behavior: a systematic review.

With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic, the level of concern regarding employee digital competence has increased significantly. Several studies provide different surveys, but they cannot describe the relationship between digital autonomy and innovative work behaviour concerning the impact of employee digital competence. Hence, it is necessary to conduct a survey that provides a deeper understanding of these concerns and suggests a suitable study for other researchers. Using scientific publication databases and adhering to the PRISMA statement, this systematic literature review aims to offer a current overview of employee digital competence impact on the relationship between digital autonomy and innovative work behaviour from 2015 to 2022, covering definitions, research purposes, methodologies, outcomes, and limitations. When reviewing the selected articles, 18 articles were examined under relationship topics, and 12 articles reported on impact topics under different tasks. The main findings highlight the significance of digital competence and autonomy in promoting employee creativity, learning, and sharing knowledge. According to the review findings, employees with greater digital autonomy are more likely to engage in innovative work, leading to improved job performance and empowerment. Therefore, the development of digital autonomy prioritizes organizations by providing access to digital tools, training, and a supportive work environment. Overall, the current review indicates a strong positive correlation between digital autonomy, innovative work behaviour, and employee impact. This underscores the importance for organizations to not only participate in digital competence and skills, but also to create a culture that values autonomy, creativity, and innovation among its employees.

Student teachers' perceptions of flipped classroom in EFL teacher education.

This paper aims to provide evidence on student teachers' perceptions of Flipped Classroom (FC) to help teacher educators (TEs) to make informed decisions about implementing FC and support student teachers to reflect on the value of FC in their teaching practice. FC, a pedagogical model requiring digital competence of students and teachers, has been a popular teaching approach for nearly two decades in K-12 and higher education. After the outbreak of Covid-19, more teachers have started to implement FC. In post-Covid-19, with the possibility of reusing video lectures made during the pandemic and the familiarity of digital skills to create digital lectures, a question for teachers is whether to continue with this approach. This paper follows an explanatory sequential mixed methods research approach. Insights from student teachers (STs) in the field of English as a foreign language (EFL) in Norway are the primary data, and surveys and focus group interviews are the main instruments to collect the data. FC's advantages and challenges perceived by STs are reported, and the possibility of STs becoming future flippers is explored. Findings from this paper indicate that STs would like to have more courses flipped in their studies, yet STs seem hesitant about flipping their courses in their teaching practice. STs also provide some practical suggestions on implementing the FC approach.

Evidence of validity and reliability of DigCompEdu CheckIn among professors at a Peruvian private university

Introduction: For some years now, various frameworks and self-assessment tools have been developed to describe the facets of teachers & rsquo;digital competence, one of these being the DigCompEdu CheckIn. This has been validated in English in Morocco, in German in Ger-many, and in Spanish in Spain. The objective of this study is to validate the instrument that was developed in another context, so that it responds to the need to measure the digital competence of teachers at a private university in Lima, Peru, based on their self-perception. Method: An instrumental study was carried out to determine the evidence of validity and reliability of the DigCompEdu CheckIn tool. The sample consisted of 1,218 teachers from different areas: Art, Sciences, Social Sciences, Legal Sciences, Engineering and Architecture, Health Sciences, and Humanities. Results: The results indicate the regrouping of digital skills in a structure of three factors (F1, F2, F3) and 22 skills, unlike the original structure composed of six factors. This reduction in the structure of competencies does not rule out the interaction between general com-petencies, but rather maintains it. The three global competencies (Student Competencies (F1);Educators Professional Competencies (F2);Educators Pedagogical Competencies (F3) interact and interrelate. Conclusions: The findings show that the DigCompEdu CheckIn is a valid and reliable tool among teachers. New studies are needed to verify the three-factor proposal of the instru-ment for the Peruvian context, as well as its reliability in new populations and cultural con-texts.

Evidencias de validez y confiabilidad del DigCompEdu CheckIn en docentes de una universidad privada peruana

Introduction: For some years now, various frameworks and self-assessment tools have been developed to describe the facets of teachers & rsquo;digital competence, one of these being the DigCompEdu CheckIn. This has been validated in English in Morocco, in German in Ger-many, and in Spanish in Spain. The objective of this study is to validate the instrument that was developed in another context, so that it responds to the need to measure the digital competence of teachers at a private university in Lima, Peru, based on their self-perception. Method: An instrumental study was carried out to determine the evidence of validity and reliability of the DigCompEdu CheckIn tool. The sample consisted of 1,218 teachers from different areas: Art, Sciences, Social Sciences, Legal Sciences, Engineering and Architecture, Health Sciences, and Humanities. Results: The results indicate the regrouping of digital skills in a structure of three factors (F1, F2, F3) and 22 skills, unlike the original structure composed of six factors. This reduction in the structure of competencies does not rule out the interaction between general com-petencies, but rather maintains it. The three global competencies (Student Competencies (F1);Educators Professional Competencies (F2);Educators Pedagogical Competencies (F3) interact and interrelate. Conclusions: The findings show that the DigCompEdu CheckIn is a valid and reliable tool among teachers. New studies are needed to verify the three-factor proposal of the instru-ment for the Peruvian context, as well as its reliability in new populations and cultural con-texts.

The Current State of the Use of Digital Tools for Organization of Distance Learning in General Secondary Education Institutions: 2022 Results

The article highlights the current state of the use of digital tools for the organization of distance learning of students in general secondary education institutions in Ukraine based on an online survey of teaching staff conducted in the period from January 25 to February 25, 2022 by the Institute of Digitalization of Education of the National Academy of Educational Sciences of Ukraine. The Ukrainian education system, like the educational systems of other countries, faced challenges related to the need to intensively conduct distance learning in educational institutions in connection with quarantine measures in the languages of the COVID-19 pandemic. 54,254 people of various categories of educators took part in the survey, including teachers of general secondary education institutions, methodologists of the post-graduate education system, school psychologists and heads of secondary education institutions. The main questions of the questionnaire, which were divided into three blocks, related to the organization of distance learning in practice and the state of readiness of educators to use digital tools for the preparation and conducting of educational activities by teachers of special educational institutions, as well as the determination of their needs and educational resources, electronic learning tools that are used the most by demand. The novelty of the survey is based on the selection and use during the survey of teacher digital competence categories that are consistent with the international framework of digital competence of citizens, in particular the Digital Competence Framework DigComp 2.0 and 2.1, developed by the European community. Summarized data on the results of self-assessment by pedagogical workers of their digital competence are presented. The results of online surveys of teachers in 2020, 2021 and 2022 were compared and the dynamics of teachers' use of digital tools for distance learning was highlighted. Conclusions are provided that will contribute to the practical use of survey results by education management bodies, institutions and institutions for teacher training, general secondary education institutions, scientific institutions and other interested parties in organizing the necessary measures, the implementation of which will contribute to the successful use of ICT and the implementation of distance learning. The purpose of the article is to present the results of an online survey of teachers and other pedagogical workers to all interested parties for practical use in the organization of distance learning in schools.

Digital Competence in Times of Covid-19: A Bibliometric Analysis

Digital competence is one of the key competencies for lifelong learning. Moreover, with the health emergency of COVID-19, the study on this competence arouses interest due to its contribution to digital transformation and educa-tional innovation. Given this, the objective of the study was to determine the status of the documents that relate digital competence and COVID-19. For this purpose, a bibliome-tric analysis of 308 research papers published in Scopus was conducted. It is found that the number of papers pu-blished in 2021 is multiplied by 3.3 times compared to 2020. Likewise, the journal Sustainability presents the hig-hest number of publications on this field of study;Spain is the country with the highest scientific production and specifically the University of Seville is the institution with the highest number of publications. With respect to coun-try co-authorships, it is found that Spain has the greatest influence in this field of study. It is concluded that there is growing research of an accessible and collaborative na-ture, especially in Spanish-speaking countries, as well as the existence of a recurrence of research on the digital competence of teachers and students for the effective im-plementation of e-learning.

Teachers' Digital Competence in Basque Country during the COVID-19 pandemic

The objective of this research is to measure the perception that teachers had about their own performance when they were forced to carry out an Emergency Remote Teaching due to the COVID-19 pandemic. A questionnaire was provided to teachers of every educational stage in the Basque Country (Child, Primary and Secondary Education, Professional Training and Higher Education) obtaining a total of 4,586 responses. The statistical analysis of the data shows that the greatest difficulties reported by educators are shortcomings in the training of teachers in digital skills, as well as a lack of resilience of the system and / or lack of a 'plan B' in extraordinary situations. The existing digital divide between teachers based on their gender, age and type of school should be highlighted. Another worrying result is the lower technological competence in lower educational levels, which are the most vulnerable in remote teaching. These results invite us to reflect on the measures to be taken to improve equity, social justice and resilience of the educational system.

Digital natives and immigrants in the context of COVID-19: the contradictions of a diversity of myths

In the context of COVID-19 different changes and tensions have occurred in the Education System as a result of several factors. The rapid and strong transition towards a distance learning system mainly based on technology has brought to the surface weaknesses in the Education System derived from teacher training, the lack of technology, the lack of educational resources to be used in virtual distance learning and the lack of credibility regarding the effectiveness of this training modality. This article highlights the lack of differences in technological proficiency between so-called digital”natives” and”immigrants”, between students and teachers. In general, it is problematic to assume that students are digitally competent, while teachers have not developed such proficiency. This has led to negative consequences that, in turn, caused educational institutions to neglect the training of students in digital competencies. Mere exposure to technology should not be confused with having a high capacity to use it. It concludes by defending the term digital learners, rather than digital natives. Thus, it is argued that digital literacy is not only about handling technological tools, but also thinking and problem-solving in a digital society. © 2023 Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais. All rights reserved.

Student satisfaction with online teaching in times of COVID-19

Higher education is one of the driving forces behind the social and economic development of countries, with the ultimate aim of providing quality academic training. At present, teaching-learning models in virtual environments face a number of important challenges, particularly in the current situation caused by COVID-19. Some of these challenges will be addressed in this study. We worked with 225 third-year undergraduate students in health science degrees over two academic years during the pandemic. The objectives were: (1) to ascertain whether there were significant differences in student satisfaction with the teaching process in the first year of the pandemic (e-learning teaching) vs. the second year (b-learning teaching);(2) to determine whether there were significant differences in academic performance between the two groups. Quantitative research (using a 2x2 factorial design, ANOVA and ANCOVA) and qualitative research (using a comparative design with categorisation analysis) were carried out. The results indicate differences in some aspects of satisfaction and learning outcomes in favour of teaching in the second of the two years. Students rated the use of active methodologies and technological resources positively, although they concluded that their use required more work time. Future studies will seek to compare student satisfaction in other areas of knowledge. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved) (Spanish) La Educacion Superior es uno de los motores del desarrollo social y economico de los paises, teniendo como objetivo ultimo el de facilitar una formacion academica de calidad. En la actualidad, los modelos de ensenanza-aprendizaje en entornos virtuales implican retos importantes, especificamente en la actual situacion por la COVID-19. Algunos de estos desafios se abordaran en este estudio. Se trabajo con 225 estudiantes de tercero de grado en titulaciones de Ciencias de la Salud, a lo largo de dos cursos academicos impartidos durante la situacion de pandemia. Los objetivos fueron: 1) comprobar si existian diferencias significativas en la satisfaccion de los estudiantes con el proceso docente respecto del primer ano de pandemia (se aplico docencia e-Learning) vs. el segundo ano (se aplico docencia b-Learning);2) comprobar si existian diferencias significativas en los resultados academicos entre ambos grupos. Se realizo una investigacion cuantitativa (se utilizo un diseno factorial 2x2, ANOVA y ANCOVA) y otra cualitativa (se utilizo un diseno comparativo con analisis de categorizacion). Los resultados indican diferencias en algunos aspectos de la satisfaccion y en los resultados de aprendizaje, a favor de la docencia en el segundo ano. Los estudiantes valoraron positivamente el uso de metodologias activas y de recursos tecnologicos, si bien concluyeron que su uso exigia mas tiempo de trabajo. Futuros estudios se dirigiran a contrastar la satisfaccion de estudiantes en otras ramas de conocimiento. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)

Digital Innovation in Language Teaching—Analysis of the Digital Competence of Teachers according to the DigCompEdu Framework

The utilization of technology in the process of teaching and learning, as well as the influence of the COVID-19 crisis on education, are widely recognized and interconnected factors. This investigation is primarily focused on a group of formal education teachers who have received little attention to date, teachers from Official Language Schools, which are a part of the Special Regime Education system of Andalucía, a southern region of Spain, which provides foreign language education. Specifically, we aim to assess their level of digital proficiency in relation to their experience and use of information and communication technology (ICT) in the classroom. We also analyze how the March 2020 lockdown impacted their confidence levels in utilizing ICT in their teaching practices. One hundred and four teachers took part in the study and answered the DigCompEdu check-in questionnaire. The findings indicate that teachers' overall self-assessment of their digital competence is low, with particular attention needed in the least developed areas, which is the facilitation of digital proficiency to students. Additionally, there are noteworthy differences in the variables of ICT experience and confidence. For example, the amount of time spent utilizing ICT in teaching does not necessarily correlate with teaching proficiency. Based on these results, we discuss potential strategies for enhancing digital competence in this educational group and propose some curriculum content for teacher training in digital competence.

University-Wide Digital Skills Training: A Case Study Evaluation

Digital competencies and confidence are thought to be critical to success in higher education. However, despite learning frequently taking place online through the use of virtual learning environment and tools such as lecture capture, and evidence to counter the idea of digital nativity, these critical skills are often not explicitly taught at university. In the present study, we describe the development and evaluation of our Essential Digital Skills programme, which is a university-wide digital training programme designed and implemented at a large London university, aimed at new students but open to all students at the University. Using Kirkpatrick's evaluation model, we demonstrate that the programme provided effective training in digital skills for all students but that individual differences exist in the training experience, notably around ethnicity and student status, with Black and Minority Ethnic (BAME) students and international students feeling that the training made a greater contribution to their skill levels and resulted in greater behaviour change and impact, as well as intention to undertake further training.

Adaptive pedagogical strategies responding to emergency remote teaching – immediate responses of Hungarian primary school teachers: Association for Learning Technology Journal

Digital disruption is not a new phenomenon in education;however, it has become more prominent during the COVID-19 pandemic due to school closures and the related emergency remote teaching (ERT) period. Our study aims to explore the different pedagogical strategies that primary school teachers adopted during this period and determine how successful these strategies were in involving and engaging students. Altogether, 4028 teachers from 343 primary schools answered our online survey from all the regions of Hungary. The sample adequately represents the Hungarian primary school teacher population in terms of gender and age. We used cluster analysis and identified four clusters of pedagogical strategies;then, we used analysis of variance to explore how teachers' digital competence and their ability to involve students in online learning varied across different clusters. Our analysis grasps the complexity of the issue, as it shows that two rather distinct strategies were both successful in involving students, and thus, there is no single solution best suited to digital learning. Overall, digitally competent teachers loosened the originally strict structure of education and provided more feedback, which proved to be an important element in successfully involving students in digital learning during ERT. The framework validated in our research can be used by policymakers and school administrators in different national and educational contexts, enabling them to understand the complexity of online teaching and learning. Furthermore, our results can offer some practical pointers for school teachers on how to combine different pedagogical strategies.

Online proctored exams and digital inequalities during the pandemic

Background The emergence of the COVID-19 and the resulting global pandemic has ushered in far-reaching changes for countries across the world, not least of which are changes to their education systems. With traditional location-based exams no longer possible at universities, the uptake of online proctored exams (OPE) has occurred at a pace not seen prior to the pandemic. Students' experiences of online proctored exams during the pandemic are reasonably well-understood in terms of digital access and ease of use of the technology. However, less is known about students' perceptions of digital confidence and competence to complete an online exam, both of which are important digital equity considerations. Objectives This study investigates students' digital confidence and competence to undertake online proctored exams to determine whether issues of equity exist for students. Methods This study reports the results of a survey (N = 761) of one university's students' experiences of end-of-semester online proctored exams in New Zealand. Results Most students were positive about online exams, felt reasonably confident to complete an exam, and had the necessary digital access (i.e., devices, internet) and competence to succeed. However, digital inequalities were found between students' perceptions of digital competence based on ethnicity. While more time learning online equated to increasing self-reported digital competence for most ethnic groups, this was not the case for Pacific learners. Takeaways Perceptions of low digital competence can contribute to digital inequalities. Educators can support learners to develop positive perceptions of digital competence by teaching digital literacy skills. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved)